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Numbers in the Roman numeral organisation

For a description of numeric words in Latin, see Latin numerals.

Roman numerals on stern of the send Cutty Sark showing draught in feet. The numbers range from 13 to 22, from bottom to top.

Roman numerals are a numeral system that originated in ancient Rome and remained the usual fashion of writing numbers throughout Europe well into the Late Eye Ages. Numbers in this system are represented by combinations of letters from the Latin alphabet. Modern style uses 7 symbols, each with a fixed integer value:[1]

Symbol I V X L C D M
Value 1 five x 50 100 500 1000

The use of Roman numerals connected long after the turn down of the Roman Empire. From the 14th century on, Roman numerals began to exist replaced by Arabic numerals; however, this process was gradual, and the utilise of Roman numerals persists in some applications to this day.

One place they are often seen is on clock faces. For instance, on the clock of Big Ben (designed in 1852), the hours from 1 to 12 are written every bit:

I, II, Three, Four, V, Half-dozen, VII, VIII, IX, X, XI, XII

The notations IV and IX tin can be read as "one less than five" (4) and "one less than x" (nine), although at that place is a tradition favouring representation of "four" equally "IIII" on Roman numeral clocks.[ii]

Other common uses include yr numbers on monuments and buildings and copyright dates on the title screens of movies and goggle box programs. MCM, signifying "a grand, and a hundred less than another k", means 1900, so 1912 is written MCMXII. For the years of this century, MM indicates 2000. The current twelvemonth is MMXXII (2022).

Description

Roman numerals are essentially a decimal or "base x" number organization, but instead of place value notation (in which place-keeping zeros enable a digit to represent different powers of ten) the system uses a set of symbols with fixed values, including "congenital in" powers of x. Tally-like combinations of these fixed symbols correspond to the (placed) digits of Arabic numerals. This construction allows for pregnant flexibility in note, and many variant forms are attested.

In fact, in that location has never been an officially binding, or universally accepted standard for Roman numerals. Usage in aboriginal Rome varied greatly and became thoroughly chaotic in medieval times. Fifty-fifty the post-renaissance restoration of a largely "classical" notation has failed to produce full consistency: variant forms are even defended by some modern writers as offering improved "flexibility".[iii] On the other hand, especially where a Roman numeral is considered a legally bounden expression of a number, every bit in U.South. Copyright police force (where an "wrong" or ambiguous numeral may invalidate a copyright claim, or affect the termination date of the copyright period)[4] information technology is desirable to strictly follow the usual style described below.

Standard form

The following table displays how Roman numerals are usually written:[5]

Private decimal places
Thousands Hundreds Tens Units
i Thousand C Ten I
2 MM CC 20 II
3 MMM CCC XXX 3
4 CD XL 4
5 D L V
6 DC Sixty VI
7 DCC Seventy Vii
8 DCCC LXXX Eight
9 CM XC Nine

The numerals for 4 (IV) and 9 (IX) are written using "subtractive notation",[6] where the first symbol (I) is subtracted from the larger one (V, or X), thus avoiding the clumsier (IIII, and VIIII).[a] Subtractive notation is as well used for 40 (XL), 90 (Xc), 400 (CD) and 900 (CM).[7] These are the simply subtractive forms in standard use.

A number containing two or more decimal digits is congenital by appending the Roman numeral equivalent for each, from highest to lowest, as in the following examples:

  •    39 = Xxx + Ix = XXXIX .
  •   246 = CC + Xl + 6 = CCXLVI .
  •   789 = DCC + LXXX + IX = DCCLXXXIX .
  • 2,421 = MM + CD + 20 + I = MMCDXXI .

Any missing identify (represented by a nada in the place-value equivalent) is omitted, as in Latin (and English language) speech:

  •   160 = C + 60 = CLX
  •   207 = CC + VII = CCVII
  • 1,009 = M + IX = MIX
  • i,066 = M + LX + Vi = MLXVI [viii] [nine]

In exercise, Roman numerals for large numbers are currently used mainly for year numbers, as in these examples:

  • 1776 = M + DCC + LXX + Vi = MDCCLXXVI (the appointment written on the book held past the Statue of Liberty).
  • 1918 = M + CM + X + VIII = MCMXVIII (the offset year of the Spanish influenza pandemic)
  • 1954 = 1000 + CM + L + IV = MCMLIV (as in the trailer for the movie The Terminal Time I Saw Paris)[4]
  • 2014 = MM + 10 + IV = MMXIV (the year of the games of the XXII (22nd) Olympic Winter Games (in Sochi, Russia))

The largest number that tin be represented in this notation is 3,999 ( MMMCMXCIX ), merely since the largest Roman numeral likely to be required today is MMXXII (the current yr) at that place is no applied need for larger Roman numerals. Prior to the introduction of Arabic numerals in the West, aboriginal and medieval users of the system used diverse means to write larger numbers; run into Large numbers below.

Variant forms

Forms exist that vary in one way or another from the general standard represented above.

Additive annotation

While subtractive notation for 4, 40 and 400 (Four, XL and CD) has been the usual form since Roman times, additive note to stand for these numbers (IIII, XXXX and CCCC)[10] continued to be used, including in compound numbers like XXIIII,[eleven] LXXIIII,[12] and CCCCLXXXX.[13] The condiment forms for 9, 90, and 900 (VIIII,[10] LXXXX,[14] and DCCCC [15]) have also been used, although less often.

The two conventions could be mixed in the aforementioned document or inscription, even in the same numeral. For example, on the numbered gates to the Colosseum, IIII is systematically used instead of IV, but subtractive notation is used for Forty; consequently, gate 44 is labelled XLIIII.[16] [17]

Modernistic clock faces that use Roman numerals even so very often utilise IIII for four o'clock but IX for nine o'clock, a do that goes back to very early clocks such equally the Wells Cathedral clock of the late 14th century.[xviii] [19] [xx] Withal, this is far from universal: for case, the clock on the Palace of Westminster tower, Large Ben, uses a subtractive 4 for 4 o'clock.[19]

Isaac Asimov one time mentioned an "interesting theory" that Romans avoided using IV because it was the initial letters of IVPITER , the Latin spelling of Jupiter, and might have seemed impious.[21] He did not say whose theory it was.

The year number on Admiralty Arch, London. The twelvemonth 1910 is rendered every bit

MDCCCCX, rather than the more usual

MCMX

Several awe-inspiring inscriptions created in the early 20th century use variant forms for "1900" (usually written MCM). These vary from MDCCCCX for 1910 equally seen on Admiralty Curvation, London, to the more unusual, if not unique MDCDIII for 1903, on the n entrance to the Saint Louis Art Museum.[22]

Especially on tombstones and other funerary inscriptions 5 and 50 have been occasionally written IIIII and XXXXX instead of V and Fifty, and there are instances such equally IIIIII and XXXXXX rather than 6 or LX.[23] [24]

Irregular subtractive notation

There is a common belief that whatever smaller digit placed to the left of a larger digit is subtracted from the total, and that by clever choices a long Roman numeral can be "compressed". The best known example of this is the ROMAN() part in Microsoft Excel, which can turn 499 into CDXCIX, LDVLIV, XDIX, VDIV, or ID depending on the "Form" setting.[25] There is no indication this is annihilation other than an invention past the programmer, and the universal-subtraction belief may exist a effect of modern users trying to rationalize the syntax of Roman numerals.

Epitaph of centurion Marcus Caelius, showing "

XIIX"

There is however some historic use of subtractive notation other than that described in the to a higher place "standard": in particular IIIXX for 17,[26] IIXX for 18,[27] IIIC for 97,[28] IIC for 98,[29] [xxx] and IC for 99.[31] A possible explanation is that the word for 18 in Latin is duodeviginti , literally "two from twenty", 98 is duodecentum (two from hundred), and 99 is undecentum (one from hundred).[32] Nonetheless, the explanation does not seem to employ to IIIXX and IIIC, since the Latin words for 17 and 97 were septendecim (vii ten) and nonaginta septem (ninety seven), respectively.

There are multiple examples of IIX being used for 8. There does not seem to be a linguistic explanation for this use, although information technology is one stroke shorter than 8. XIIX was used by officers of the 18 Roman Legion to write their number.[33] [34] The notation appears prominently on the cenotaph of their senior centurion Marcus Caelius (c.  45 BC – AD ix). On the publicly displayed official Roman calendars known equally Fasti, XIIX is used for the xviii days to the adjacent Kalends, and XXIIX for the 28 days in February. The latter can be seen on the sole extant pre-Julian calendar, the Fasti Antiates Maiores.[35]

Rare variants

While irregular subtractive and condiment notation has been used at least occasionally throughout history, some Roman numerals have been observed in documents and inscriptions that do not fit either organization. Some of these variants practice not seem to have been used exterior specific contexts, and may have been regarded every bit errors even by contemporaries.

Padlock used on the north gate of the Irish town of Athlone. "1613" in the date is rendered

XVIXIII, (literally "16, xiii") instead of

MDCXIII

  • IIXX was how people associated with the XXII Roman Legion used to write their number. The do may have been due to a common manner to say "20-2nd" in Latin, namely duo et vice(n)sima (literally "2 and twentieth") rather than the "regular" vice(n)sima secunda (twenty second).[36] Evidently, at least one ancient stonecutter mistakenly thought that the IIXX of "22nd Legion" stood for 18, and "corrected" it to XVIII.[36]

  • At that place are some examples of yr numbers subsequently 1000 written equally two Roman numerals 1–99, e.1000. 1613 equally XVIXIII, corresponding to the common reading "sixteen thirteen" of such year numbers in English, or 1519 as XVCXix as in French quinze-cent-dix-neuf (fifteen-hundred and nineteen), and similar readings in other languages.[38]
  • In some French texts from the 15th century and later i finds constructions like IIIITwentyNineteen for 99, reflecting the French reading of that number as quatre-vingt-dix-neuf (four-score and nineteen).[38] Similarly, in some English documents i finds, for example, 77 written every bit "iiitwentyxvii" (which could be read "iii-score and seventeen").[39]
  • Another medieval accounting text from 1301 renders numbers like 13,573 equally " XIII. M. 5. C. Iii. 20. XIII ", that is, "13×1000 + five×100 + iii×20 + 13".[twoscore]
  • Other numerals that practice not fit the usual patterns – such as VXL for 45, instead of the usual XLV — may be due to scribal errors, or the writer's lack of familiarity with the organization, rather than existence genuine variant usage.

Not-numeric combinations

As Roman numerals are equanimous of ordinary alphabetic characters, there may sometimes be confusion with other uses of the same letters. For example, "XXX" and "Xl" have other connotations in improver to their values every bit Roman numerals, while "IXL" by and large is a gramogram of "I excel", and is in any example not an unambiguous Roman numeral.

Nix

"Place-keeping" zeros are alien to the organization of Roman numerals - however the actual number zippo (what remains after 1 is subtracted from i) was also missing from the classical Roman numeral arrangement. The word nulla (the Latin word meaning "none") was used to represent 0, although the earliest attested instances are medieval. For instance Dionysius Exiguus used nulla alongside Roman numerals in a manuscript from 525 Advertisement.[41] [42] About 725, Bede or one of his colleagues used the letter N, the initial of nulla or of nihil (the Latin word for "zip") for 0, in a table of epacts, all written in Roman numerals.[43]

The utilize of North to indicate "none" long survived in the historic apothecaries' system of measurement: used well into the 20th century to designate quantities in pharmaceutical prescriptions.[44]

Fractions

A triens money ( 1⁄iii or

4⁄12 of an as ). Note the four dots (····) indicating its value.

A semis coin (

1⁄2 or

6⁄12 of an as ). Note the

Southward indicating its value.

The base of operations "Roman fraction" is S, indicating 1⁄2 . The use of Southward (equally in VIIS to point 7 1⁄2 ) is attested in some ancient inscriptions[45] and likewise in the now rare apothecaries' system (usually in the course SS):[44] but while Roman numerals for whole numbers are essentially decimal Due south does not represent to 5⁄ten , as 1 might expect, only half dozen⁄12 .

The Romans used a duodecimal rather than a decimal system for fractions, as the divisibility of twelve (12 = two2 × three) makes it easier to handle the common fractions of 1⁄three and 1⁄iv than does a organisation based on ten (ten = 2 × 5). Notation for fractions other than 1⁄2 is mainly found on surviving Roman coins, many of which had values that were duodecimal fractions of the unit as . Fractions less than 1⁄2 are indicated by a dot (·) for each uncia "twelfth", the source of the English language words inch and ounce; dots are repeated for fractions up to five twelfths. Six twelfths (one half), is Southward for semis "half". Uncia dots were added to Southward for fractions from seven to eleven twelfths, but every bit tallies were added to V for whole numbers from six to nine.[46] The arrangement of the dots was variable and not necessarily linear. V dots arranged like (⁙) (as on the confront of a dice) are known as a quincunx, from the name of the Roman fraction/coin. The Latin words sextans and quadrans are the source of the English words sextant and quadrant.

Each fraction from 1⁄12 to 12⁄12 had a name in Roman times; these corresponded to the names of the related coins:

Fraction Roman numeral Name (nominative and genitive) Meaning
1⁄12 · Uncia, unciae "Ounce"
ii⁄12 = ane⁄6 ·· or : Sextans, sextantis "6th"
iii⁄12 = 1⁄4 ··· or ∴ Quadrans, quadrantis "Quarter"
4⁄12 = 1⁄3 ···· or ∷ Triens, trientis "Third"
5⁄12 ····· or ⁙ Quincunx, quincuncis "5-ounce" (quinque unciae → quincunx)
6⁄12 = 1⁄ii S Semis, semissis "Half"
seven⁄12 S · Septunx, septuncis "Seven-ounce" (septem unciae → septunx)
8⁄12 = ii⁄three S ·· or S : Bes, bessis "Twice" (as in "twice a tertiary")
9⁄12 = iii⁄4 S ··· or S ∴ Dodrans, dodrantis
or nonuncium, nonuncii 		"Less a quarter" (de-quadrans → dodrans)
or "ninth ounce" (nona uncia → nonuncium)
10⁄12 = 5⁄half dozen S ···· or South ∷ Dextans, dextantis
or decunx, decuncis 		"Less a sixth" (de-sextans → dextans)
or "ten ounces" (decem unciae → decunx)
xi⁄12 South ····· or S ⁙ Deunx, deuncis "Less an ounce" (de-uncia → deunx)
12⁄12 = 1 I Equally, assis "Unit of measurement"

Other Roman fractional notations included the following:

Fraction Roman numeral Proper name (nominative and genitive) Meaning
1⁄1728 =12−3 𐆕 Siliqua, siliquae
1⁄288 ℈ Scripulum, scripuli "scruple"
1⁄144 =12−ii 𐆔 Dimidia sextula, dimidiae sextulae "half a sextula"
1⁄72 𐆓 Sextula, sextulae " 1⁄6 of an uncia"
1⁄48 Ↄ Sicilicus, sicilici
1⁄36 𐆓𐆓 Binae sextulae, binarum sextularum "two sextulas" ( duella, duellae )
ane⁄24 Σ or 𐆒 or Є Semuncia, semunciae " 1⁄2 uncia" (semi- + uncia)
one⁄8 Σ· or 𐆒· or Є· Sescuncia, sescunciae "ane+ one⁄2 uncias" (sesqui- + uncia)

Big numbers

During the centuries that Roman numerals remained the standard mode of writing numbers throughout Europe, there were various extensions to the system designed to betoken larger numbers, none of which were ever standardised.

Apostrophus

"1630" on the Westerkerk in Amsterdam. "

M" and "

D" are given archaic "apostrophus" grade.

I of these was the apostrophus,[47] in which 500 was written equally IↃ, while 1,000 was written as CIↃ.[21] This is a system of encasing numbers to denote thousands (imagine the Cs and Ↄs as parentheses), which has its origins in Etruscan numeral usage. The IↃ and CIↃ used to represent 500 and 1,000 nearly likely preceded, and subsequently influenced, the adoption of "D" and "1000" in conventional Roman numerals.

Each additional set of C and Ↄ surrounding CIↃ raises the value by a cistron of ten: CCIↃↃ represents 10,000 and CCCIↃↃↃ represents 100,000. Similarly, each boosted Ↄ to the right of IↃ raises the value by a factor of x: IↃↃ represents 5,000 and IↃↃↃ represents l,000. Numerals larger than CCCIↃↃↃ practise not occur.[48]

Folio from a 16th-century manual, showing a mixture of apostrophus and vinculum numbers (see in particular the ways of writing 10,000).

Sometimes CIↃ was reduced to ↀ for 1,000. John Wallis is often credited for introducing the symbol for infinity (modern ∞), and one theorize is that he based information technology on this usage, since 1,000 was hyperbolically used to represent very large numbers. Similarly, IↃↃ for 5,000 was reduced to ↁ; CCIↃↃ for x,000 to ↂ; IↃↃↃ for l,000 to ↇ (ↇ); and CCCIↃↃↃ (ↈ) for 100,000 to ↈ. [49]

Vinculum

Another system was the vinculum, in which conventional Roman numerals were multiplied by one,000 by calculation a "bar" or "overline".[49] Information technology was a mutual alternative to the apostrophic ↀ during the Royal era: both systems were in simultaneous use around the Roman world (1000 for '1000' was not in use until the Medieval menses).[50] [51] The use of vinculum for multiples of 1,000 can be observed, for example, on the milestones erected past Roman soldiers along the Antonine Wall in the mid-2nd century Advertising.[52] There is some telescopic for defoliation when an overline is meant to announce multiples of ane,000, and when not. The Greeks and Romans often overlined letters acting as numerals to highlight them from the general body of the text, without any numerical significance. This stylistic convention was, for example, as well in use in the inscriptions of the Antonine Wall,[53] and the reader is required to decipher the intended pregnant of the overline from the context. The vinculum for marking 1,000s continued in use in the Eye Ages, though it became known more commonly as titulus.[54]

Some modern sources describe Vinculum every bit if it were a part of the current "standard".[55] However, this is purely hypothetical, since no common modern usage requires numbers larger than the current yr (MMXXII). Notwithstanding, here are some examples, to give an idea of how it might be used:

  • IV = four,000
  • IV DCXXVII = 4,627
  • XXV = 25,000
  • XXV CDLIX = 25,459

Another inconsistent medieval usage was the addition of vertical lines (or brackets) before and after the numeral to multiply information technology past x (or 100): thus M for 10,000 every bit an culling grade for X . In combination with the overline the bracketed forms might be used to raise the multiplier to (say) ten (or 1 hundred) g, thus:

  • Eight for 80,000 (or 800,000)
  • Xx for 200,000 (or 2,000,000)

Use of Roman numeral "

I" (with exaggerated serifs) contrasting with the upper case letter "I".

This use of lines is distinct from the custom, in one case very common, of calculation both underline and overline (or very large serifs) to a Roman numeral, simply to brand information technology clear that it is a number, e.g. Roman numerals drawn with connecting lines for 1967.

Origin

The system is closely associated with the ancient city-land of Rome and the Empire that it created. However, due to the scarcity of surviving examples, the origins of the arrangement are obscure and there are several competing theories, all largely conjectural.

Etruscan numerals

Rome was founded sometime betwixt 850 and 750 BC. At the time, the region was inhabited by diverse populations of which the Etruscans were the most advanced. The aboriginal Romans themselves admitted that the basis of much of their civilization was Etruscan. Rome itself was located next to the southern edge of the Etruscan domain, which covered a large part of north-central Italian republic.

The Roman numerals, in particular, are straight derived from the Etruscan number symbols: "𐌠", "𐌡", "𐌢", "𐌣", and "𐌟" for 1, v, 10, l, and 100 (They had more symbols for larger numbers, but information technology is unknown which symbol represents which number). As in the basic Roman organization, the Etruscans wrote the symbols that added to the desired number, from college to lower value. Thus the number 87, for example, would be written 50 + ten + ten + 10 + 5 + 1 + 1 = 𐌣𐌢𐌢𐌢𐌡𐌠𐌠 (this would appear every bit 𐌠𐌠𐌡𐌢𐌢𐌢𐌣 since Etruscan was written from correct to left.)[56]

The symbols "𐌠" and "𐌡" resembled letters of the Etruscan alphabet, but "𐌢", "𐌣", and "𐌟" did not. The Etruscans used the subtractive notation, too, but non like the Romans. They wrote 17, 18, and 19 as "𐌠𐌠𐌠𐌢𐌢", "𐌠𐌠𐌢𐌢", and 𐌠𐌢𐌢, mirroring the style they spoke those numbers ("three from xx", etc.); and similarly for 27, 28, 29, 37, 38, etc. However they did not write "𐌠𐌡" for 4 (or "𐌢𐌣" for 40), and wrote "𐌡𐌠𐌠", "𐌡𐌠𐌠𐌠" and "𐌡𐌠𐌠𐌠𐌠" for seven, 8, and 9, respectively.[56]

Early on Roman numerals

The early Roman numerals for 1, x, and 100 were the Etruscan ones: "I", "X", and "𐌟". The symbols for five and 50 changed from Ʌ and "𐌣" to Five and ↆ at some signal. The latter had flattened to ⊥ (an inverted T) by the time of Augustus, and presently afterwards became identified with the graphically similar letter L.[48]

The symbol for 100 was written variously every bit >I< or ↃIC, was and so abbreviated to Ↄ or C, with C (which matched a Latin letter) finally winning out. It may have helped that C is the initial of centum, Latin for "hundred".

The numbers 500 and 1000 were denoted by V or X overlaid with a box or circle. Thus 500 was like a Ↄ superimposed on a Þ . It became D or Ð by the time of Augustus, under the graphic influence of the letter D. It was later on identified equally the letter D; an alternative symbol for "thou" was a CIↃ, and one-half of a thousand or "five hundred" is the correct half of the symbol, IↃ, and this may have been converted into D.[21]

The notation for 1000 was a circled or boxed X: Ⓧ, ⊗, ⊕, and by Augustinian times was partially identified with the Greek letter Φ phi. Over fourth dimension, the symbol inverse to Ψ and ↀ. The latter symbol further evolved into ∞, then ⋈, and somewhen changed to M under the influence of the Latin give-and-take mille "thousand".[48]

According to Paul Kayser, the basic numerical symbols were I, 10, C and Φ (or ⊕) and the intermediate ones were derived by taking half of those (one-half an 10 is Five, half a C is 50 and half a Φ/⊕ is D).[57]

Entrance to section

LII (52) of the Colosseum, with numerals still visible

Classical Roman numerals

The Colosseum was constructed in Rome in CE 72–80,[58] and while the original perimeter wall has largely disappeared, the numbered entrances from XXIII (23) to LIIII (54) survive,[59] to demonstrate that in Imperial times Roman numerals had already assumed their classical grade: as largely standardised in current use. The nearly obvious bibelot (a common ane that persisted for centuries) is the inconsistent use of subtractive notation - while Forty is used for twoscore, IV is avoided in favour of IIII: in fact gate 44 is labelled XLIIII.

Use in the Middle Ages and Renaissance

Lower instance, or minuscule, letters were developed in the Middle Ages, well after the demise of the Western Roman Empire, and since that time lower-instance versions of Roman numbers have also been commonly used: i, ii, iii, 4, and and then on.

13th century case of

iiij.

Since the Eye Ages, a "j" has sometimes been substituted for the concluding "i" of a "lower-case" Roman numeral, such equally "iij" for three or "vij" for 7. This "j" can be considered a swash variant of "i". Into the early 20th century, the use of a final "j" was still sometimes used in medical prescriptions to preclude tampering with or misinterpretation of a number subsequently it was written.[threescore]

Numerals in documents and inscriptions from the Center Ages sometimes include additional symbols, which today are chosen "medieval Roman numerals". Some simply substitute another letter of the alphabet for the standard one (such as "A" for "Five", or "Q" for "D"), while others serve as abbreviations for compound numerals ("O" for "XI", or "F" for "40"). Although they are still listed today in some dictionaries, they are long out of utilise.[61]

Number Medieval
abbreviation 		Notes and etymology
five A Resembles an upside-downwardly V. Also said to equal 500.
6 ↅ Either from a ligature of VI, or from digamma (ϛ), the Greek numeral 6 (sometimes conflated with the στ ligature).[48]
7 S, Z Presumed abbreviation of septem , Latin for seven.
9.five X̷ Scribal abbreviation, an x with a slash through information technology. Likewise, IX̷ represented 8.v
eleven O Presumed abbreviation of onze , French for 11.
40 F Presumed abbreviation of English twoscore.
lxx Due south Too could stand for 7, with the same derivation.
80 R
90 N Presumed abridgement of nonaginta , Latin for ninety. (Cryptic with Due north for "nothing" (nihil)).
150 Y Mayhap derived from the lowercase y's shape.
151 One thousand Unusual, origin unknown; too said to stand up for 250.[62]
160 T Possibly derived from Greek tetra, as four × 40 = 160.
200 H Could as well stand for 2 (come across also 𐆙, the symbol for the dupondius). From a barring of two I's.
250 Eastward
300 B
400 P, Yard
500 Q Redundant with D; abbreviates quingenti , Latin for 500. Likewise sometimes used for 500,000.[63]
800 Ω Borrowed from Gothic.
900 ϡ Borrowed from Gothic.
2000 Z

Chronograms, messages with dates encoded into them, were popular during the Renaissance era. The chronogram would be a phrase containing the letters I, V, X, Fifty, C, D, and Thou. By putting these letters together, the reader would obtain a number, usually indicating a detail year.

Modern utilize

Past the 11th century, Arabic numerals had been introduced into Europe from al-Andalus, by way of Arab traders and arithmetic treatises. Roman numerals, withal, proved very persistent, remaining in common utilise in the Westward well into the 14th and 15th centuries, fifty-fifty in accounting and other business organization records (where the actual calculations would have been made using an abacus). Replacement by their more convenient "Arabic" equivalents was quite gradual, and Roman numerals are nevertheless used today in certain contexts. A few examples of their electric current employ are:

Spanish Real using

IIII instead of

IV as regnal number of Charles

Four of Spain

  • Names of monarchs and popes, e.g. Elizabeth Ii of the United kingdom, Pope Benedict XVI. These are referred to as regnal numbers and are commonly read as ordinals; eastward.g. 2 is pronounced "the second". This tradition began in Europe sporadically in the Middle Ages, gaining widespread use in England during the reign of Henry Viii. Previously, the monarch was not known by numeral merely past an epithet such as Edward the Confessor. Some monarchs (e.g. Charles IV of Espana and Louis 14 of France) seem to have preferred the employ of IIII instead of Four on their coinage (run across illustration).
  • Generational suffixes, particularly in the U.S., for people sharing the same name across generations, for example William Howard Taft IV.
  • In the French Republican Agenda, initiated during the French Revolution, years were numbered by Roman numerals – from the year I (1792) when this calendar was introduced to the year Xiv (1805) when it was abandoned.
  • The year of production of films, television shows and other works of art within the work itself. Outside reference to the work will use regular Standard arabic numerals.

The year of construction of the Cambridge Public Library, (The states) 1888, displayed in "standard" Roman numerals on its facade

  • Hour marks on timepieces. In this context, four is often written IIII.
  • The year of construction on building façades and cornerstones.
  • Page numbering of prefaces and introductions of books, and sometimes of appendices and annexes, as well.
  • Volume volume and chapter numbers, as well as the several acts within a play (e.thou. Act iii, Scene 2).
  • Sequels to some films, video games, and other works (as in Rocky II, Grand Theft Car V).
  • Outlines that utilise numbers to prove hierarchical relationships.
  • Occurrences of a recurring grand upshot, for instance:
    • The Summer and Wintertime Olympic Games (e.one thousand. the XXI Olympic Winter Games; the Games of the XXX Olympiad)
    • The Super Bowl, the almanac championship game of the National Football League (e.one thousand. Super Bowl XLII; Super Basin 50 was a 1-time exception[64])
    • WrestleMania, the annual professional wrestling event for the WWE (eastward.yard. WrestleMania Thirty). This usage has also been inconsistent.

Specific disciplines

In astronautics, United States rocket model variants are sometimes designated by Roman numerals, e.chiliad. Titan I, Titan II, Titan III, Saturn I, Saturn V.

In astronomy, the natural satellites or "moons" of the planets are traditionally designated by capital Roman numerals appended to the planet's name. For example, Titan'due south designation is SaturnVI.

In chemistry, Roman numerals are often used to denote the groups of the periodic table. They are besides used in the IUPAC nomenclature of inorganic chemistry, for the oxidation number of cations which can have on several different positive charges. They are also used for naming phases of polymorphic crystals, such as ice.

In educational activity, school grades (in the sense of year-groups rather than exam scores) are sometimes referred to by a Roman numeral; for example, "course IX" is sometimes seen for "course 9".

In entomology, the broods of the 13 and seventeen twelvemonth periodical cicadas are identified by Roman numerals.

In graphic design stylised Roman numerals may represent numeric values.

In law, Roman numerals are commonly used to help organize legal codes equally part of an alphanumeric outline.

In advanced mathematics (including trigonometry, statistics, and calculus), when a graph includes negative numbers, its quadrants are named using I, II, III, and IV. These quadrant names signify positive numbers on both axes, negative numbers on the X axis, negative numbers on both axes, and negative numbers on the Y axis, respectively. The utilise of Roman numerals to designate quadrants avoids confusion, since Standard arabic numerals are used for the actual data represented in the graph.

In armed forces unit designation, Roman numerals are often used to distinguish between units at different levels. This reduces possible confusion, especially when viewing operational or strategic level maps. In particular, army corps are oft numbered using Roman numerals (for instance the American XVIII Airborne Corps or the WW2-era German Three Panzerkorps) with Arabic numerals being used for divisions and armies.

In music, Roman numerals are used in several contexts:

  • Movements are often numbered using Roman numerals.
  • In Roman Numeral Analysis, harmonic role is identified using Roman Numerals.
  • Individual strings of stringed instruments, such as the violin, are often denoted past Roman numerals, with higher numbers cogent lower strings.

In pharmacy, Roman numerals were used with the now largely obsolete apothecaries' system of measurement: including SS to announce "one half" and N to denote "zero".[44] [65]

In photography, Roman numerals (with cipher) are used to denote varying levels of effulgence when using the Zone System.

In seismology, Roman numerals are used to designate degrees of the Mercalli intensity scale of earthquakes.

In sport the team containing the "top" players and representing a nation or province, a society or a school at the highest level in (say) rugby union is often called the "1st Fifteen", while a lower-ranking cricket or American football team might exist the "third XI".

In tarot, Roman numerals (with zero) are used to denote the cards of the Major Arcana.

In theology and biblical scholarship, the Septuagint is ofttimes referred to every bit 70, equally this translation of the Old Testament into Greek is named for the legendary number of its translators (septuaginta beingness Latin for "lxx").

Modern use in European languages other than English

Some uses that are rare or never seen in English speaking countries may exist relatively common in parts of continental Europe and in other regions (e.g. Latin America) that use a European language other than English. For instance:

Upper-case letter or pocket-size majuscule Roman numerals are widely used in Romance languages to denote centuries, e.g. the French Eighteen e siècle [66] and the Spanish siglo XVIII mean "18th century". Slavic languages in and adjacent to Russian federation similarly favor Roman numerals ( xviii век ). On the other hand, in Slavic languages in Central Europe, like most Germanic languages, one writes "xviii." (with a period) earlier the local word for "century".

Boris Yeltsin's signature, dated x November 1988, rendered as 10.

XI.1988.

Mixed Roman and Arabic numerals are sometimes used in numeric representations of dates (specially in formal letters and official documents, but also on tombstones). The month is written in Roman numerals, while the day is in Arabic numerals: "4.VI.1789" and "VI.four.1789" both refer unambiguously to 4 June 1789.

Business organization hours tabular array on a shop window in Vilnius, Lithuania

Roman numerals are sometimes used to represent the days of the calendar week in hours-of-performance signs displayed in windows or on doors of businesses,[67] and also sometimes in railway and bus timetables. Monday, taken equally the first day of the week, is represented by I. Sunday is represented past VII. The hours of operation signs are tables equanimous of ii columns where the left column is the day of the week in Roman numerals and the correct column is a range of hours of performance from starting fourth dimension to closing time. In the example case (left), the business concern opens from 10 AM to 7 PM on weekdays, ten AM to 5 PM on Saturdays and is closed on Sundays. Note that the listing uses 24-60 minutes time.

Sign at 17.9 km on route SS4 Salaria, north of Rome, Italia

Roman numerals may also be used for floor numbering.[68] [69] For case, apartments in central Amsterdam are indicated as 138-3, with both an Arabic numeral (number of the cake or house) and a Roman numeral (flooring number). The apartment on the ground floor is indicated every bit 138-huis .

In Italy, where roads exterior built-up areas accept kilometre signs, major roads and motorways likewise mark 100-metre subdivisionals, using Roman numerals from I to IX for the smaller intervals. The sign Ix / 17 thus marks 17.ix km.

Sure Spanish-speaking Latin American countries use Roman numerals to designate assemblies of their national legislatures. For example, the composition of the Mexican Congress of the Matrimony from 2018 to 2021 (elected in the 2018 Mexican general election) is called the LXIV Legislature of the Mexican Congress (or more unremarkably the "LXIV Legislature").

A notable exception to the employ of Roman numerals in Europe is in Greece, where Greek numerals (based on the Greek alphabet) are by and large used in contexts where Roman numerals would be used elsewhere.

Unicode

The "Number Forms" block of the Unicode figurer character set standard has a number of Roman numeral symbols in the range of code points from U+2160 to U+2188.[70] This range includes both upper- and lowercase numerals, as well as pre-combined characters for numbers up to 12 (Ⅻ or XII). 1 justification for the existence of pre-combined numbers is to facilitate the setting of multiple-letter of the alphabet numbers (such as Viii) on a single horizontal line in Asian vertical text. The Unicode standard, however, includes special Roman numeral code points for compatibility simply, stating that "[f]or almost purposes, it is preferable to etch the Roman numerals from sequences of the appropriate Latin letters".[71] The block also includes some apostrophus symbols for large numbers, an quondam variant of "Fifty" (fifty) similar to the Etruscan character, the Claudian letter of the alphabet "reversed C", etc.

Symbol ↀ ↁ ↂ ↅ ↆ ↇ ↈ
Value ane,000 five,000 ten,000 half dozen l fifty,000 100,000

See also

  • Egyptian numerals
  • Etruscan numerals
  • Greek numerals
  • Hebrew numerals
  • Kharosthi numerals
  • Maya numerals
  • Roman abacus
  • Proto-writing
  • Roman numerals in Unicode
  • Pentimal system

References

Notes

  1. ^ Without theorising most causation, it may be noted that IV and IX non just take fewer characters than IIII and VIIII, just are less probable to be confused (especially at a quick glance) with 3 and VIII.

Citations

  1. ^ Gordon, Arthur E. (1982). Illustrated Introduction to Latin Epigraphy. Berkeley: University of California Printing. ISBN0-520-05079-seven. Alphabetic symbols for larger numbers, such as Q for 500,000, have too been used to various degrees of standardization.
  2. ^ Judkins, Maura (four Nov 2011). "Public clocks practice a number on Roman numerals". The Washington Post . Retrieved 13 August 2019. Most clocks using Roman numerals traditionally use IIII instead of IV... I of the rare prominent clocks that uses the IV instead of IIII is Large Ben in London.
  3. ^ Adams, Cecil (23 Feb 1990). "What is the proper way to fashion Roman numerals for the 1990s?". The Straight Dope.
  4. ^ a b Hayes, David P. "Guide to Roman Numerals". Copyright Registration and Renewal Information Chart and Web Site.
  5. ^ Reddy, Indra Chiliad.; Khan, Mansoor A. (2003). "1 (Working with Arabic and Roman numerals)". Essential Math and Calculations for Chemist's shop Technicians. CRC Press. p. three. ISBN978-0-203-49534-6. Table one-i Roman and Standard arabic numerals (table very similar to the table hither, apart from inclusion of Vinculum notation.
  6. ^ Stanislas Dehaene (1997): The Number Sense : How the Heed Creates Mathematics. Oxford University Press; 288 pages. ISBN 9780199723096
  7. ^ Ûrij Vasilʹevič Prokhorov and Michiel Hazewinkel, editors (1990): Encyclopaedia of Mathematics, Book 10, page 502. Springer; 546 pages. ISBN 9781556080050
  8. ^ Dela Cruz, M. Fifty. P.; Torres, H. D. (2009). Number Smart Quest for Mastery: Teacher's Edition. King Bookstore, Inc. ISBN9789712352164.
  9. ^ Martelli, Alex; Ascher, David (2002). Python Cookbook . O'Reilly Media Inc. ISBN978-0-596-00167-four.
  10. ^ a b Julius Caesar (52–49 BC): Commentarii de Bello Gallico. Volume II, Department 4: "... Xv milia Atrebates, Ambianos X milia, Morinos XXV milia, Menapios VII milia, Caletos X milia, Veliocasses et Viromanduos totidem, Atuatucos XVIIII milia; ..." Section eight: "... ab utroque latere eius collis transversam fossam obduxit circiter passuum CCCC et advertising extremas fossas castella constituit..." Book IV, Section 15: "Nostri advertising unum omnes incolumes, perpaucis vulneratis, ex tanti belli timore, cum hostium numerus capitum CCCCXXX milium fuisset, se in castra receperunt." Book 7, Department iv: "...in hiberna remissis ipse se recipit die XXXX Bibracte."
  11. ^ Angelo Rocca (1612) De campanis commentarius. Published by Guillelmo Faciotti, Rome. Title of a Plate: "Campana a XXIIII hominibus pulsata" ("Bell to be sounded by 24 men")
  12. ^ Gerard Ter Borch (1673): Portrait of Cornelis de Graef. Date on painting: "Out. XXIIII Jaer. // M. DC. LXXIIII".
  13. ^ Pliny the Elderberry (77–79 Advertisement): Naturalis Historia, Book III: "Saturni vocatur, Caesaream Mauretaniae urbem CCLXXXXVII p[assum]. traiectus. reliqua in ora flumen Tader ... ortus in Cantabris haut procul oppido Iuliobrica, per CCCCL p. fluens ..." Book IV: "Epiri, Achaiae, Atticae, Thessalia in porrectum longitudo CCCCLXXXX traditur, latitudo CCLXXXXVII." Book VI: "tam vicinum Arsaniae fluere eum in regione Arrhene Claudius Caesar auctor est, ut, cum intumuere, confluant nec tamen misceantur leviorque Arsanias innatet MMMM ferme spatio, mox divisus in Euphraten mergatur."
  14. ^ Thomas Bennet (1731): Grammatica Hebræa, cum uberrima praxi in usum tironum ... Editio tertia. Published by T. Astley, re-create in the British Library; 149 pages. Page 24: "PRÆFIXA duo sunt viz. He emphaticum vel relativum (de quo Cap Vi Reg. LXXXX.) & Shin cum Segal sequente Dagesh, quod denotat pronomen relativum..."
  15. ^ Pico Della Mirandola (1486) Conclusiones sive Theses DCCCC ("Conclusions, or 900 Theses").
  16. ^ "360:12 tables, 24 chairs, and plenty of chalk". Roman Numerals...non quite and so unproblematic. 2 January 2011.
  17. ^ "Paul Lewis". Roman Numerals...How they piece of work. 13 November 2021.
  18. ^ Milham, W.I. (1947). Time & Timekeepers. New York: Macmillan. p. 196.
  19. ^ a b Pickover, Clifford A. (2003), Wonders of Numbers: Adventures in Mathematics, Listen, and Meaning, Oxford Academy Press, p. 282, ISBN978-0-nineteen-534800-two .
  20. ^ Adams, Cecil; Zotti, Ed (1988). More than of the straight dope. Ballantine Books. p. 154. ISBN978-0-345-35145-6. .
  21. ^ a b c Asimov, Isaac (1966). Asimov on Numbers (PDF). Pocket Books, a division of Simon & Schuster, Inc. p. 12.
  22. ^ "Gallery: Museum'south Northward Entrance (1910)". Saint Louis Art Museum. Archived from the original on 4 December 2010. Retrieved ten Jan 2014. The inscription over the North Entrance to the Museum reads: "Dedicated to Fine art and Free to All MDCDIII." These roman numerals translate to 1903, indicating that the engraving was function of the original building designed for the 1904 World'southward Fair.
  23. ^ Reynolds, Joyce Maire; Spawforth, Anthony J. S. (1996). "numbers, Roman". In Hornblower, Simon; Spawforth, Anthony (eds.). Oxford Classical Dictionary (3rd ed.). Oxford University Press. ISBN0-19-866172-X.
  24. ^ Kennedy, Benjamin Hall (1923). The Revised Latin Primer. London: Longmans, Green & Co.
  25. ^ "ROMAN role". support.microsoft.com.
  26. ^ Michaele Gasp. Lvndorphio (1621): Acta publica inter invictissimos gloriosissimosque&c. ... et Ferdinandum II. Romanorum Imperatores.... Printed by Ian-Friderici Weissii. Page 123: "Sub Dato Pragæ IIIXX Decemb. A. C. M. DC. IIXX". Page 126, end of the aforementioned document: "Dabantur Pragæ 17 Decemb. M. DC. IIXX"
  27. ^ Raphael Sulpicius à Munscrod (1621): Vera Air conditioning Germana Detecto Clandestinarvm Deliberationvm. Page sixteen, line 1: "repertum Originale Subdatum IIIXXX Aug. A. C. MDC.IIXX". Page 41, upper right corner: "Decemb. A. C. MDC.IIXX". Page 42, upper left corner: "Febr. A. C. MDC.Xix". Folio 70: "IIXX. die Maij sequentia in consilio noua ex Bohemia allata....". Folio 71: "19. Maij".
  28. ^ Wilhelm Ernst Tentzel (1699): Als Ihre Königl. Majestät in Pohlen und .... Page 39: "... und der Umschrifft: LITHUANIA ASSERTA M. DC. IIIC [1699]."
  29. ^ Joh. Caspar Posner (1698): Mvndvs dues mvndvm sive De Chao Orbis Primordio, championship page: "Advertizement diem jvlii A. O. R. K DC IIC".
  30. ^ Wilhelm Ernst Tentzel (1700): Saxonia Nvmismatica: Das ist: Die Historie Des Durchlauchtigsten.... Folio 26: "Dice Revers chapeau eine feine Inscription: SERENISSIMO DN.DN... SENATUS.QVERNF. A. Thou DC IIC D. xviii October [yr 1698 day xviii oct]."
  31. ^ Enea Silvio Piccolomini (1698): Opera Geographica et Historica. Helmstadt, J. Thousand. Sustermann. Championship page of first edition: "Bibliopolæ ibid. G DC IC"
  32. ^ Kennedy, Benjamin H. (1879). Latin grammar. London: Longmans, Dark-green, and Co. p. 150. ISBN9781177808293.
  33. ^ Adkins, Lesley; Adkins, Roy A (2004). Handbook to life in ancient Rome (2 ed.). p. 270. ISBN0-8160-5026-0.
  34. ^ Boyne, William (1968). A manual of Roman coins. p. thirteen.
  35. ^ Degrassi, Atilius, ed. (1963), Inscriptiones Italiae, vol. 13: Fasti et Elogia, Rome: Istituto Poligrafico dello Stato, Fasciculus 2: Fasti anni Numani et Iuliani
  36. ^ a b Stephen James Malone, (2005) Legio XX Valeria Victrix.... PhD thesis. On folio 396 it discusses many coins with "Leg. IIXX" and notes that it must be Legion 22. The footnote on that page says: "The grade IIXX clearly reflecting the Latin duo et vicensima 'twenty-second': cf. X5398, legatus I[eg Two] I et vicensim(ae) Pri[mi]g; 6 1551, legatus leg] IIXX Prj; III 14207.7, miles leg IIXX; and Iii 10471-three, a vexillation drawn from four German legions including '18 PR' – surely here the stonecutter's hypercorrection for IIXX PR.
  37. ^ Fifty' Atre périlleux et Yvain, le chevalier au panthera leo . 1301–1350.
  38. ^ a b M. Gachard (1862): "II. Analectes historiques, neuvième série (nos CCLXI-CCLXXXIV)". Bulletin de la Committee royale d'Historie, volume 3, pages 345–554. Page 347: Lettre de Philippe le Beau aux échevins..., quote: "Escript en nostre ville de Gand, le XXIIIIme de febvrier, fifty'an IIII20XIX [quatre-vingt-dix-neuf = 99]." Page 356: Lettre de l'achiduchesse Marguerite au conseil de Brabant..., quote: "... Escript à Bruxelles, le dernier jour de juing anno 15cXIX [1519]." Page 374: Letters patentes de la rémission ... de la ville de Bruxelles, quote: "... Op heden, tweentwintich ['twenty-two'] daegen in decembri, anno vyfthien hondert tweendertich ['fifteen hundred xxx-two'] ... Gegeven op x vyfsten dach in deser jegewoirdige maent van decembri anno XV tweendertich [1532] vorschreven." Page 419: Acte du duc de Parme portant approbation..., quote": "Faiet le XVme de juillet Fifteenc huytante-six [1586]." doi:10.3406/bcrh.1862.3033
  39. ^ Herbert Edward Salter (1923) Registrum Annalium Collegii Mertonensis 1483–1521 Oxford Historical Gild, volume 76; 544 pages. Page 184 has the ciphering in pounds:shillings:pence (li:s:d) x:3:iiii + xxi:viii:eight + xlv:xiiii:i = iiitwentyxvii:vi:i, i.east. 10:3:4 + 21:8:eight + 45:fourteen:ane = 77:6:1.
  40. ^ Johannis de Sancto Justo (1301): "E Duo Codicibus Ceratis" ("From Ii Texts in Wax"). In de Wailly, Delisle (1865): Contenant la deuxieme livraison des monumens des regnes de saint Louis,... Book 22 of Recueil des historiens des Gaules et de la French republic. Page 530: "SUMMA totalis, Thirteen. Thou. 5. C. 3. Twenty. XIII. 50. Three s. 11 d. [Sum total, thirteen g 5 hundred three score 13 livres, 3 sous, 11 deniers].
  41. ^ Faith Wallis, trans. Bede: The Reckoning of Time (725), Liverpool, Liverpool Univ. Pr., 2004. ISBN 0-85323-693-3.
  42. ^ Byrhtferth's Enchiridion (1016). Edited by Peter South. Baker and Michael Lapidge. Early English Text Society 1995. ISBN 978-0-19-722416-viii.
  43. ^ C. W. Jones, ed., Opera Didascalica, vol. 123C in Corpus Christianorum, Serial Latina.
  44. ^ a b c Bachenheimer, Bonnie S. (2010). Manual for Chemist's Technicians. ISBN978-one-58528-307-1.
  45. ^ "RIB 2208. Distance Slab of the 6th Legion". Roman Inscriptions in Britain . Retrieved xi Nov 2020.
  46. ^ Maher, David W.; Makowski, John F., "Literary Evidence for Roman Arithmetic with Fractions Archived 27 August 2013 at the Wayback Car", Classical Philology 96 (2011): 376–399.
  47. ^ "Merriam-Webster Entire Dictionary".
  48. ^ a b c d Perry, David J. Proposal to Add together Additional Aboriginal Roman Characters to UCS Archived 22 June 2011 at the Wayback Machine.
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  53. ^ "RIB 2171. Building Inscription of the Second and Twentieth Legions". Roman Inscriptions in Britain . Retrieved 9 November 2020.
  54. ^ Chrisomalis, Stephen (2010). Numerical Notation: A Comparative History. Cambridge University Press. p. 119. ISBN978-0-521-87818-0.
  55. ^ "What is Vinculum Notation?". Numerals Converter. 4 March 2019. Retrieved ix November 2020.
  56. ^ a b Gilles Van Heems (2009)> "Nombre, chiffre, lettre : Formes et réformes. Des notations chiffrées de l'étrusque" ("Between Numbers and Letters: About Etruscan Notations of Numeral Sequences"). Revue de philologie, de littérature et d'histoire anciennes, book LXXXIII (83), issue 1, pages 103–130. ISSN 0035-1652
  57. ^ Keyser, Paul (1988). "The Origin of the Latin Numerals 1 to one thousand". American Journal of Archaeology. 92 (4): 529–546. doi:10.2307/505248. JSTOR 505248. S2CID 193086234.
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Sources

  • Menninger, Karl (1992). Number Words and Number Symbols: A Cultural History of Numbers. Dover Publications. ISBN978-0-486-27096-8.

Further reading

  • Aczel, Amir D. 2015. Finding Zero: A Mathematician'southward Odyssey to Uncover the Origins of Numbers. 1st edition. New York: Palgrave Macmillan.
  • Goines, David Lance. A Constructed Roman Alphabet: A Geometric Assay of the Greek and Roman Capitals and of the Standard arabic Numerals. Boston: D.R. Godine, 1982.
  • Houston, Stephen D. 2012. The Shape of Script: How and Why Writing Systems Change. Santa Fe, NM: School for Advanced Research Printing.
  • Taisbak, Christian M. 1965. "Roman numerals and the abacus." Classica et medievalia 26: 147–60.

External links

  • "Roman Numerals (Totally Epic Guide)". Know The Romans.

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Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_numerals

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